In this project, I explored the divergence of the pronunciations of Chinese characters in the modern Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages by creating a data table where each Chinese character was listed next to its Romanized pronunciations in all three languages (Romanized pronunciation meaning the closest equivalent sound to the actual pronunciation using the Roman alphabet). I did this by scraping online dictionaries of all three languages and parsing their pronunciation keys, and in the case of Korean, systematically converting Korean characters to their Romanized pronunciations. From the data table, I found the distances between each of the languages' pronunciations of Chinese characters, and compared all of the homonyms. Further patterns in the divergence of these pronunciations can be found using this work.
Introduction
Introduction
Finding patterns in changes in pronunciations of Chinese characters between Chinese, Japanese, and Korean can help one better understand the connections between these languages. Such patterns can also make it easier for one to learn one of these languages if they already know another.
Background Information
Background Information
Before learning about the history of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, it is important to note that language is separate from writing system. The word “language” only refers to the communication in the form of speech rather than both spoken and written communication, which both the Japanese and Koreans had before they started using Chinese characters. However, they both initially used Chinese characters to express the sounds in their languages because they did not have their own writing systems.
Out of the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean writing systems, Chinese script is the oldest and heavily influenced both Japanese and Korean vocabularies which went along with the spread of their soft and hard power. [7] About 60% of the Japanese vocabulary and about 75% of the Korean vocabulary originated from Chinese. [36, 40] Chinese also greatly influenced the Vietnamese vocabulary. [18] The Chinese writing system is made up of more than 50,000 characters, each of which are logograms, meaning they each have individual meanings. [7] Some modern Chinese characters trace back to around 1200 BC during the Shang Dynasty, but the process of the creation of characters started even earlier. [38] However the Chinese writing system’s standard written form was only created in 1913. [7]
The Japanese first adopted Chinese characters for their own language, and later developed their own writing scripts, katakana and hiragana, created around the 9th century.[7, 23] Katakana and hiragana are both syllabaries, meaning each character represents a syllable. [23, 24]
Koreans initially also had their own spoken language but not writing system, so they wrote with Chinese characters. [7] Most of the ancient Korean texts were written in Chinese script. [18] In the 15th century, Korea created its own written language, but Chinese characters were still used for some time. [7] Vocabulary derived from Chinese characters is still heavily used, but now the sounds are expressed with the Korean script.
Although both the Japanese and Koreans now have their individual writing systems for expressing sounds, their vocabularies derived from Chinese are still in use and retain much of the original pronunciations. [7] In this project, I studied the Romanized versions of those pronunciations (romaji for Japanese), alongside the Romanized pronunciations of Chinese characters, called pinyin. [9]
Compiling a List of Traditional Chinese Characters and Pronunciations
Compiling a List of Traditional Chinese Characters and Pronunciations
First, I found an online Chinese dictionary, and I wanted to create a list of traditional Chinese characters together with their pronunciations. [10]
I took the standard URL for the website so that you could add on the English word you wanted the dictionary entry for, then import the data from that entry.
I took the standard URL for the website so that you could add on the English word you wanted the dictionary entry for, then import the data from that entry.
In[]:=
standardc="https://chinesedictionary.net/translate-english/";
The URL and data from entering the word "search":
In[]:=
examplec=StringJoin[standardc,"search"]
Out[]=
https://chinesedictionary.net/translate-english/search
examplecdata=Import[examplec,"Data"]
Then I needed to take the relevant data from each entry, namely, the translation in traditional Chinese characters and the pronunciation. There were often multiple translations for an English word, so I took the characters from all of them.
Taking the translations of the word "search" in traditional characters and pronunciations. The dictionary offered four translations.
In[]:=
Cases[examplecdata[[2,2]],{"Traditional",__}]
Out[]=
Traditional,搜查,Traditional,搜索,Traditional,探訪,Traditional,追尋
In[]:=
Cases[examplecdata[[2,2]],{"Pronunciation",__}]
Out[]=
{{Pronunciation,sōu chá},{Pronunciation,sōu suǒ},{Pronunciation,tàn fǎng},{Pronunciation,zhuī xún}}
So, the generalized functions for getting the characters and pronunciations were:
Taking the data:
Taking the data:
In[]:=
datac[word_]:=Import[StringJoin[standardc,word],"Data"]
Taking the relevant information (without the headers of "Traditional" and "Pronunciation":
In[]:=
infoc[x_]:={Characters@#[[2]]&/@Cases[x[[2,2]],{"Traditional",__}]//Flatten,TextWords@#[[2]]&/@Cases[x[[2,2]],{"Pronunciation",__}]//Flatten}
Then, using both those functions to create a list of characters together with their pronunciations:
In[]:=
functionc[word_]:=Transpose[infoc[datac[word]]]
The final results from inputting the word "search":
In[]:=
functionc["search"]
Out[]=
搜,sōu,查,chá,搜,sōu,索,suǒ,探,tàn,訪,fǎng,追,zhuī,尋,xún
Taking the Japanese Pronunciation of a Character
Taking the Japanese Pronunciation of a Character
Similarly to the Chinese dictionary, I created a standard URL for a Japanese dictionary such that I could replace the string "keyWord" with the Chinese character I wanted to look up. [22] The only difference was that I had to run the function URLEncode on the character so the website could take the URL, then I imported the data from that dictionary entry.
The standard URL:
In[]:=
urlj="https://www.japandict.com/kanji/keyWord?lang=en"
Out[]=
https://www.japandict.com/kanji/keyWord?lang=en
Inserting the encoded character so the website would understand the URL:
In[]:=
urlSearchj=StringReplace[urlj,"keyWord"->URLEncode["搜"]]
Out[]=
https://www.japandict.com/kanji/%E6%90%9C?lang=en
Importing the data from the dictionary entry:
In[]:=
webSource=Import[urlSearchj,"Source"];
Within the source data, I needed to find the string <dt>On’yomi</dt> as it would be near the pronunciation I needed. On'yomi is one of the two ways that the Japanese read Chinese characters (the other being "Kun'yomi). On'yomi is a way of reading derived from Chinese pronunciations, while Kun’yomi is the original Japanese way of reading Chinese characters. [8] The "On'yomi" readings are the pronunciations used in this project.
Finding the start index of the string position of <dt>On’yomi</dt>
In[]:=
start=StringPosition[webSource,"<dt>On'yomi</dt>"][[1,1]]
Out[]=
32453
Taking the segment including that string:
In[]:=
segment=StringTake[webSource,{start,start+220}]
Out[]=
<dt>On'yomi</dt><dd class="ms-3 mt-2"><span class="me-4" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" data-bs-placement="top" title="sou">ソウ</span><span class="me-4" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" data-bs-placement="top" title="shu">シュ</span><span
Picking out the string ”title=\””, which would be next to the On'yomi pronunciation:
In[]:=
begin=StringPosition[segment,"title=\""][[1,2]]
Out[]=
113
Taking the segment after that string:
In[]:=
remainder=StringTake[segment,begin;;-1]
Out[]=
"sou">ソウ</span><span class="me-4" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" data-bs-placement="top" title="shu">シュ</span><span
Finding the position of the character that separated the On'yomi pronunciation from the rest of the segment:
In[]:=
position=StringPosition[remainder,"\">"][[All,1]][[1]]-2
Out[]=
3
Taking the On'yomi pronunciation:
In[]:=
StringTake[segment,{begin+1,begin+position}]
Out[]=
sou
Then I created functions for each step of the process, and consolidated that into one function that would return a Chinese character and its Japanese pronunciation.
In[]:=
importj[char_]:=Import[StringReplace[urlj,"keyWord"->URLEncode[char]],"Source"]segmentj[char_]:=StringTake[importj[char],{StringPosition[importj[char],"<dt>On'yomi</dt>"][[1,1]],StringPosition[importj[char],"<dt>On'yomi</dt>"][[1,1]]+220}]beginj[char_]:=StringPosition[segmentj[char],"title=\""][[1,2]]remainderj[char_]:=StringTake[segmentj[char],beginj[char];;-1]positionj[char_]:=StringPosition[remainderj[char],"\">"][[All,1]][[1]]-2takej[char_]:=StringTake[segmentj[char],{beginj[char]+1,beginj[char]+positionj[char]}]functionj[char_]:={char,takej[char]}
The final results from inputting the word “搜":
In[]:=
functionj["搜"]
Out[]=
搜,sou
Taking the Korean Pronunciation of a Character
Taking the Korean Pronunciation of a Character
There were two steps to taking the Korean pronunciation of a Chinese character. The Korean dictionary I used took a Chinese character and gave the Korean pronunciation of it, but in a Korean character. [43] So, the first step was getting that character.
I again used a standard URL with the string "searchKey" replaced with an encoded Chinese character. Then I imported the source data from the dictionary entry pulled up from the URL and looked for the string that would be next to the Korean character I wanted. Lastly, I took that Korean character.
I again used a standard URL with the string "searchKey" replaced with an encoded Chinese character. Then I imported the source data from the dictionary entry pulled up from the URL and looked for the string that would be next to the Korean character I wanted. Lastly, I took that Korean character.
In[]:=
urlk="https://dic.daum.net/search.do?q=searchKey&dic=hanja";koreandata[char_]:=Import[StringReplace[urlk,"searchKey"->URLEncode[char]],"Source"]koreanstring[char_]:=StringCases[koreandata[char],Shortest["data-tiara-action-name=\"훈음 클릭\">"~~x__~~","]:>x][[1]],StringCases[koreandata[char],Shortest["data-tiara-action-name=\"훈음 클릭\">"~~x__~~"<"]:>x][[1]]koreanpronunciationfunction[char_]:=MinimalBy[koreanstring[char],StringLength[#]&][[1]]koreanpronunciationfull[char_]:=StringSplit[koreanpronunciationfunction[char]," "][[-1]]
Getting the Korean pronunciation in Korean characters of a Chinese character:
In[]:=
koreanpronunciationfull["搜"]
Out[]=
수
As opposed to in the Japanese dictionary, from which I could take just the Romanized pronunciation of a Chinese character, I needed to convert the Korean character taken from the Korean dictionary into its Romanized pronunciation.
Each Korean character is made up of a starting consonant and a vowel, and sometimes an ending consonant. The unicode range of Korean characters includes all the possibilities created in this format, in an organized sequence. The functions below use this organization to map each consonant and vowel to a number. Then, each of those are mapped to their Romanized pronunciation, so that the Korean characters could be converted to their pronunciation.
Each Korean character is made up of a starting consonant and a vowel, and sometimes an ending consonant. The unicode range of Korean characters includes all the possibilities created in this format, in an organized sequence. The functions below use this organization to map each consonant and vowel to a number. Then, each of those are mapped to their Romanized pronunciation, so that the Korean characters could be converted to their pronunciation.
Converting a Korean character to its Romanized pronunciation:
Finally, a function that combines the two steps and returns a Chinese character with its Korean pronunciation:
The final results from inputting the word “搜":
Creating a List of Characters and Pronunciations
Creating a List of Characters and Pronunciations
After creating the above functions, I needed a word list to run them on. Due to the format of the Chinese dictionary function, the words all had to be in English, so I took a list of the most frequently used words from Wikipedia. [34]
Getting just the list of words (the full data included information about each word):
However, some of the words did not have dictionary entries in the Chinese dictionary, so I created a function to discard those.
I then ran that edited word list through the Chinese dictionary function, and selected the results that came back with a character and pronunciation.
Editing the Character List
Editing the Character List
I then wanted to take each of the Chinese characters from the list, and use the Japanese and Korean dictionaries to get their pronunciations in both languages. However, some of the Chinese characters did not have entries in the Japanese and Korean dictionaries, so I wanted to preemptively discard such characters in the character list.
As shown above, to get the pronunciation of Chinese characters in the Japanese and Korean dictionaries, I looked for specific strings in the source data of the dictionary entries of each character. If those strings did not show up, I then knew that the character did not have a pronunciation in the language, and discarded it.
For each list, I took the intersection of the results that it had in both functions, so that the character would have pronunciations in all three languages.
Finally, I created a function combining the three first functions that would take the format of the above list (both characters and pronunciations). It took the above list of Chinese characters and their pronunciations and returned only those with pronunciations in all the languages.
As shown above, to get the pronunciation of Chinese characters in the Japanese and Korean dictionaries, I looked for specific strings in the source data of the dictionary entries of each character. If those strings did not show up, I then knew that the character did not have a pronunciation in the language, and discarded it.
For each list, I took the intersection of the results that it had in both functions, so that the character would have pronunciations in all three languages.
Finally, I created a function combining the three first functions that would take the format of the above list (both characters and pronunciations). It took the above list of Chinese characters and their pronunciations and returned only those with pronunciations in all the languages.
I first tried running the function on the whole Chinese word list, but it was too big a list for the function to do all at once, so I split the list into groups of 10 sublists (each with a character and its pronunciation), and ran the function separately on each sublist.
For example, the first sublist was:
For example, the first sublist was:
Creating a Data Table
Creating a Data Table
There ended up being 64 "clean" character lists. I then grouped each of them into groups of 5, ending up with 12 larger character lists (the last one had 4 extra sublists).
The first character list:
Then I wanted to make each sublist with a Chinese character and its pronunciation into a list including its pronunciations in Korean and Japanese.
The "datalist" function run on the first character list of 12:
The "finaldatalist" function makes sure everything in the list is the correct format and that there are no duplicates, so that everything can
The "finaldatalist" function run on the first data list of 12:
Then I combined all the separately formatted data lists and sorted them by alphabetical order (in the Chinese pronunciation).
Finally, I created a function that would put my full data list into a table.
Pronunciation Distances
Pronunciation Distances
One way I analyzed the data was by calculating the distance from the Chinese pronunciations from the Japanese pronunciations, the distance from the Chinese pronunciations to the Korean pronunciations, and the distance from the Japanese pronunciations to the Korean pronunciations to see which were the most closely related.
Taking all the Chinese pronunciations (and a random sample of them):
Taking all the Japanese pronunciations (and a random sample of them):
Taking all the Korean pronunciations (and a random sample of them):
The distance from Chinese pronunciations to Japanese pronunciations:
Matching each Chinese pronunciation to each Japanese pronunciation:
Finding the distances of each pair:
Taking the mean of those distances:
The distance from Chinese pronunciations to Korean pronunciations:
Matching each Chinese pronunciation to each Korean pronunciation
Finding the distances of each pair:
Taking the mean of those distances:
The distance from Japanese pronunciations to Korean pronunciations:
Matching each Japanese pronunciation to each Korean pronunciation:
Finding the distances of each pair:
Taking the mean of those distances:
We can see that the distance from the Chinese and Korean pronunciations is about the same as the distance from the Japanese and Korean pronunciations while the distance from the Chinese and Japanese pronunciations is slightly larger. This result is likely because Korea is closer to China than Japan is, leading to less changes in pronunciations. If tested on more data the results might be slightly different, but the Chinese and Korean pronunciations would likely still be closer.
Homonyms
Homonyms
From the large data table I wanted to take only the characters that had homonyms in Chinese pronunciations, to see if they stayed homonyms in the other pronunciations.
This if statement takes only the Chinese pronunciations that appeared more than once and gives the number of times they appear.
The list of those pronunciations:
Those pronunciations with their characters and Japanese and Korean pronunciations:
The final table of homonyms:
We can see that many homonyms do stay homonyms in their pronunciations in other languages, but not all.
Conclusion/Future Work
Conclusion/Future Work
The functions for finding the pronunciations of Chinese characters across multiple languages are a useful tool in further exploring East Asian languages.
An aspect of this project I would like to work on in the future includes further analyzing Chinese characters whose pronunciations are homonyms in multiple languages. As seen in the homonym data table, this pattern does occur for must homonyms, but not for all, so it would be interesting to see if there are specific characteristics that make words retain their homonym status in other pronunciations. I would also like to explore whether patterns in the divergence of pronunciations could be used in predicting a Chinese character's pronunciation in one language if its pronunciation is already known in another. Finally, comparing Vietnamese to Chinese, Japanese, and Korean would be another interesting project, as it was also influenced by Chinese.
An aspect of this project I would like to work on in the future includes further analyzing Chinese characters whose pronunciations are homonyms in multiple languages. As seen in the homonym data table, this pattern does occur for must homonyms, but not for all, so it would be interesting to see if there are specific characteristics that make words retain their homonym status in other pronunciations. I would also like to explore whether patterns in the divergence of pronunciations could be used in predicting a Chinese character's pronunciation in one language if its pronunciation is already known in another. Finally, comparing Vietnamese to Chinese, Japanese, and Korean would be another interesting project, as it was also influenced by Chinese.
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my mentor James Choi for providing invaluable help while navigating through the challenges of this project and writing crucial code for the areas I was stuck.
I would also like to thank Stephen Wolfram, Rory Foulger, Megan Davis, and the rest of the Wolfram High School Summer Camp team for creating an amazing camp experience and guiding me through the whole process of this project.
I would also like to thank Stephen Wolfram, Rory Foulger, Megan Davis, and the rest of the Wolfram High School Summer Camp team for creating an amazing camp experience and guiding me through the whole process of this project.